# Memory

Cloud Hypervisor has many ways to expose memory to the guest VM. This document
aims to explain what Cloud Hypervisor is capable of and how it can be used to
meet the needs of very different use cases.

## Basic Parameters

`MemoryConfig` or what is known as `--memory` from the CLI perspective is the
easiest way to get started with Cloud Hypervisor.

```rust
struct MemoryConfig {
    size: u64,
    mergeable: bool,
    hotplug_method: HotplugMethod,
    hotplug_size: Option<u64>,
    hotplugged_size: Option<u64>,
    shared: bool,
    hugepages: bool,
    hugepage_size: Option<u64>,
    prefault: bool,
    reserve: bool,
    thp: bool,
    zones: Option<Vec<MemoryZoneConfig>>,
}
```

```
--memory <memory>	Memory parameters "size=<guest_memory_size>,mergeable=on|off,shared=on|off,hugepages=on|off,hugepage_size=<hugepage_size>,hotplug_method=acpi|virtio-mem,hotplug_size=<hotpluggable_memory_size>,hotplugged_size=<hotplugged_memory_size>,prefault=on|off,reserve=on|off,thp=on|off" [default: size=512M,thp=on]
```

### `size`

Size of the RAM in the guest VM.

This option is mandatory when using the `--memory` parameter.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G
```

### `mergeable`

Specifies if the pages from the guest RAM must be marked as _mergeable_. In
case this option is `true` or `on`, the pages will be marked with `madvise(2)`
to let the host kernel know which pages are eligible for being merged by the
KSM daemon.

This option can be used when trying to reach a higher density of VMs running
on a single host, as it will reduce the amount of memory consumed by each VM.

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,mergeable=on
```

### `hotplug_method`

Selects the way of adding and/or removing memory to/from a booted VM.

Possible values are `acpi` and `virtio-mem`. Default value is `acpi`.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,hotplug_method=acpi
```

### `hotplug_size`

Amount of memory that can be dynamically added to the VM.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits. A value of 0 is invalid.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,hotplug_size=1G
```

### `hotplugged_size`

Amount of memory that will be dynamically added to the VM at boot. This option
allows for starting a VM with a certain amount of memory that can be reduced
during runtime.

This is only valid when the `hotplug_method` is `virtio-mem` as it does not
make sense for the `acpi` use case. When using ACPI, the memory can't be
resized after it has been extended.

This option is only valid when `hotplug_size` is specified, and its value can't
exceed the value of `hotplug_size`.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits. A value of 0 is invalid.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,hotplug_method=virtio-mem,hotplug_size=1G,hotplugged_size=512M
```

### `shared`

Specifies if the memory must be `mmap(2)` with `MAP_SHARED` flag.

By sharing a memory mapping, one can share the guest RAM with other processes
running on the host. One can use this option when running vhost-user devices
as part of the VM device model, as they will be driven by standalone daemons
needing access to the guest RAM content.

By default this option is turned off, which results in performing `mmap(2)`
with `MAP_PRIVATE` flag.

If `hugepages=on` then the value of this field is ignored as huge pages always
require `MAP_SHARED`.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,shared=on
```

### `hugepages` and `hugepage_size`

Specifies if the memory must be created and `mmap(2)` with `MAP_HUGETLB` and size
flags. This performs a memory mapping relying on the specified huge page size.
If no huge page size is supplied the system's default huge page size is used.

By using hugepages, one can improve the overall performance of the VM, assuming
the guest will allocate hugepages as well. Another interesting use case is VFIO
as it speeds up the VM's boot time since the amount of IOMMU mappings is reduced.

The user is responsible for ensuring there are sufficient huge pages of the
specified size for the VMM to use. Failure to do so may result in strange VMM
behaviour, e.g. error with `ReadKernelImage` is common. If there is a strange
error with `hugepages` enabled, just disable it or check whether there are enough
huge pages.

If `hugepages=on` then the value of `shared` is ignored as huge pages always
requires `MAP_SHARED`.

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,hugepages=on,hugepage_size=2M
```

### `prefault`

Specifies whether guest memory should be prefaulted with `madvise(2)` using
`MADV_POPULATE_WRITE` after it is `mmap(2)`-ed.

With prefault enabled, Cloud Hypervisor allocates the required physical memory
and creates its page tables before the VM starts. This reduces page faults at
runtime and can surface insufficient backing memory during VM creation. If
prefaulting fails, VM creation fails with an error.

Note that boot of VM will be slower with `prefault` enabled because of allocating
physical memory and creating page tables in advance, and physical memory of the
specified size will be consumed quickly.

This option only takes effect at boot of VM. There is also a `prefault` option in
restore and its choice will overwrite `prefault` in memory.

By default, this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,prefault=on
```

### `reserve`

Specifies if guest memory should be `mmap(2)`-ed _without_ the `MAP_NORESERVE`
flag, asking the kernel to reserve the backing pages (swap space, or huge pages
for hugepage-backed memory) for the whole region up front at `mmap` time.

By default Cloud Hypervisor maps guest memory with `MAP_NORESERVE`, so VM
creation succeeds even when the backing pool cannot satisfy the full guest size.
The shortfall then surfaces only later, as a `SIGBUS` delivered to the guest when
it faults a page the pool cannot back. With `reserve=on` the reservation is made
when the memory is mapped, so an over-committed configuration fails cleanly at VM
creation with an out-of-memory error instead of crashing the guest at run time.
This is most useful for hugepage-backed memory, where the huge pages are reserved
from the pool.

Unlike `prefault`, this does not populate or fault in the memory, so it does not
slow down boot; it only reserves it.

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,hugepages=on,reserve=on
```

### `thp`

Specifies if private anonymous memory for the guest (i.e. `shared=off` and no
backing file) should be labelled `MADV_HUGEPAGE` with `madvise(2)` indicating
to the kernel that this memory may be backed with huge pages transparently.

The use of transparent huge pages can improve the performance of the guest as
there will be fewer virtualisation related page faults. Unlike using
`hugepages=on` a specific number of huge pages do not need to be allocated by
the kernel.

By default this option is turned on.

_Example_

```
--memory size=1G,thp=on
```

## Advanced Parameters

`MemoryZoneConfig` or what is known as `--memory-zone` from the CLI perspective
is a power user parameter. It allows for a full description of the guest RAM,
describing how every memory region is backed and exposed to the guest.

```rust
struct MemoryZoneConfig {
    id: String,
    size: u64,
    file: Option<PathBuf>,
    shared: bool,
    hugepages: bool,
    hugepage_size: Option<u64>,
    host_numa_node: Option<u32>,
    hotplug_size: Option<u64>,
    hotplugged_size: Option<u64>,
    prefault: bool,
    reserve: bool,
    mergeable: bool,
}
```

```
--memory-zone <memory-zone>	User defined memory zone parameters "size=<guest_memory_region_size>,file=<backing_file>,shared=on|off,hugepages=on|off,hugepage_size=<hugepage_size>,host_numa_node=<node_id>,id=<zone_identifier>,hotplug_size=<hotpluggable_memory_size>,hotplugged_size=<hotplugged_memory_size>,prefault=on|off,reserve=on|off,mergeable=on|off"
```

This parameter expects one or more occurrences, allowing for a list of memory
zones to be defined. It must be used with `--memory size=0`, clearly indicating
that the memory will be described through advanced parameters.

Each zone is given a list of options which we detail through the following
sections.

### `id`

Memory zone identifier. This identifier must be unique, otherwise an error will
be returned.

This option is useful when referring to a memory zone previously created. In
particular, the `--numa` parameter can associate a memory zone to a specific
NUMA node based on the memory zone identifier.

This option is mandatory when using the `--memory-zone` parameter.

Value is a string.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G
```

### `size`

Size of the memory zone.

This option is mandatory when using the `--memory-zone` parameter.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G
```

### `file`

Path to the file backing the memory zone. The file will be opened and used as
the backing file for the `mmap(2)` operation.

This option can be particularly useful when trying to back a part of the guest
RAM with a well known file. In the context of the snapshot/restore feature, and
if the provided path is a file, the snapshot operation will not perform any
copy of the guest RAM content for this specific memory zone since the user has
access to it and it would duplicate data already stored on the current
filesystem.

Value is a string.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,file=/foo/bar
```

### `shared`

Specifies if the memory zone must be `mmap(2)` with `MAP_SHARED` flag.

By sharing a memory zone mapping, one can share part of the guest RAM with
other processes running on the host. One can use this option when running
vhost-user devices as part of the VM device model, as they will be driven
by standalone daemons needing access to the guest RAM content.

If `hugepages=on` then the value of this field is ignored as huge pages always
require `MAP_SHARED`.

By default this option is turned off, which results in performing `mmap(2)`
with `MAP_PRIVATE` flag.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,shared=on
```

### `hugepages` and `hugepage_size`

Specifies if the memory must be created and `mmap(2)` with `MAP_HUGETLB` and size
flags. This performs a memory mapping relying on the specified huge page size.
If no huge page size is supplied the system's default huge page size is used.

By using hugepages, one can improve the overall performance of the VM, assuming
the guest will allocate hugepages as well. Another interesting use case is VFIO
as it speeds up the VM's boot time since the amount of IOMMU mappings is reduced.

The user is responsible for ensuring there are sufficient huge pages of the
specified size for the VMM to use. Failure to do so may result in strange VMM
behaviour, e.g. error with `ReadKernelImage` is common. If there is a strange
error with `hugepages` enabled, just disable it or check whether there are enough
huge pages.

If `hugepages=on` then the value of `shared` is ignored as huge pages always
require `MAP_SHARED`.

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,hugepages=on,hugepage_size=2M
```

### `host_numa_node`

Node identifier of a node present on the host. This option will let the user
pick a specific NUMA node from which the memory must be allocated. After the
memory zone is `mmap(2)`, the NUMA policy for this memory mapping will be
applied through `mbind(2)`, relying on the provided node identifier. If the
node does not exist on the host, the call to `mbind(2)` will fail.

This option is useful when trying to back a VM memory with a specific type of
memory from the host. Assuming a host has two types of memory, with one slower
than the other, each related to a distinct NUMA node, one could create a VM
with slower memory accesses by backing the entire guest RAM from the furthest
NUMA node on the host.

This option also gives the opportunity to create a VM with non uniform memory
accesses as one could define a first memory zone backed by fast memory, and a
second memory zone backed by slow memory.

Value is an unsigned integer of 32 bits.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,host_numa_node=0
```

### `hotplug_size`

Amount of memory that can be dynamically added to the memory zone. Since
`virtio-mem` is the only way of resizing a memory zone, one must specify
the `hotplug_method=virtio-mem` to the `--memory` parameter.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits. A value of 0 is invalid.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0,hotplug_method=virtio-mem
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,hotplug_size=1G
```

### `hotplugged_size`

Amount of memory that will be dynamically added to a memory zone at VM's boot.
This option allows for starting a VM with a certain amount of memory that can
be reduced during runtime.

This is only valid when the `hotplug_method` is `virtio-mem` as it does not
make sense for the `acpi` use case. When using ACPI, the memory can't be
resized after it has been extended.

This option is only valid when `hotplug_size` is specified, and its value can't
exceed the value of `hotplug_size`.

Value is an unsigned integer of 64 bits. A value of 0 is invalid.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0,hotplug_method=virtio-mem
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,hotplug_size=1G,hotplugged_size=512M
```

### `prefault`

Specifies whether this memory zone should be prefaulted with `madvise(2)` using
`MADV_POPULATE_WRITE` after it is `mmap(2)`-ed.

With prefault enabled, Cloud Hypervisor allocates the required physical memory
and creates its page tables before the VM starts. This reduces page faults at
runtime and can surface insufficient backing memory during VM creation. If
prefaulting fails, VM creation fails with an error.

Note that boot of VM will be slower with `prefault` enabled because of allocating
physical memory and creating page tables in advance, and physical memory of the
specified size will be consumed quickly.

This option only takes effect at boot of VM. There is also a `prefault` option in
restore and its choice will overwrite `prefault` in memory.

By default, this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,prefault=on
```

### `reserve`

Specifies if the memory for this zone should be `mmap(2)`-ed _without_ the
`MAP_NORESERVE` flag, asking the kernel to reserve the backing pages (swap space,
or huge pages for hugepage-backed memory) for the whole zone up front at `mmap`
time.

By default Cloud Hypervisor maps guest memory with `MAP_NORESERVE`, so VM
creation succeeds even when the backing pool cannot satisfy the full zone size.
The shortfall then surfaces only later, as a `SIGBUS` delivered to the guest when
it faults a page the pool cannot back. With `reserve=on` the reservation is made
when the memory is mapped, so an over-committed configuration fails cleanly at VM
creation with an out-of-memory error instead of crashing the guest at run time.
This is most useful for hugepage-backed zones, where the huge pages are reserved
from the pool.

Unlike `prefault`, this does not populate or fault in the memory, so it does not
slow down boot; it only reserves it.

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,hugepages=on,reserve=on
```

### `mergeable`

Specifies if the pages from this memory zone must be marked as _mergeable_,
enabling Kernel Same-page Merging (KSM) for this zone.

This is the per-zone equivalent of the top-level `--memory mergeable=on` option.
It allows KSM to be enabled selectively — for example, enabling it only on a
hotplug zone while leaving boot memory unaffected:

```
--memory size=2G,mergeable=off
--memory-zone id=hotplug,size=0,hotplug_size=8G,mergeable=on
```

For KSM to have any effect, the host kernel must have KSM enabled:
```
echo 1 > /sys/kernel/mm/ksm/run
```

By default this option is turned off.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G,mergeable=on
```

## NUMA settings

`NumaConfig` or what is known as `--numa` from the CLI perspective has been
introduced to define a guest NUMA topology. It allows for a fine description
about the CPUs and memory ranges associated with each NUMA node. Additionally
it allows for specifying the distance between each NUMA node.

Furthermore, it supports ACPI Generic Initiator Affinity (SRAT Type 5), which allows VFIO-PCI devices (such as GPUs) to be associated with NUMA nodes that are {memory,cpu}-less. Detailed configuration for this feature can be found under the device_id parameter.

```rust
struct NumaConfig {
    guest_numa_id: u32,
    cpus: Option<Vec<u32>>,
    distances: Option<Vec<NumaDistance>>,
    memory_zones: Option<Vec<String>>,
    device_id: Option<String>,
}
```

```
--numa <numa>	Settings related to a given NUMA node "guest_numa_id=<node_id>,cpus=<cpus_id>,distances=<list_of_distances_to_destination_nodes>,memory_zones=<list_of_memory_zones>,device_id=<device_identifier>"
```

### `guest_numa_id`

Node identifier of a guest NUMA node. This identifier must be unique, otherwise
an error will be returned.

This option is mandatory when using the `--numa` parameter.

Value is an unsigned integer of 32 bits.

_Example_

```
--numa guest_numa_id=0,cpus=[0-1],memory_zones=mem0
```

### `cpus`

List of virtual CPUs attached to the guest NUMA node identified by the
`guest_numa_id` option. This allows for describing a list of CPUs which
must be seen by the guest as belonging to the NUMA node `guest_numa_id`.

One can use this option for a fine-grained description of the NUMA topology
regarding the CPUs associated with it, which might help the guest run more
efficiently.

Multiple values can be provided to define the list. Each value is an unsigned
integer of 32 bits.

For instance, if one needs to attach all CPUs from 0 to 4 to a specific node,
the syntax using `-` will help define a contiguous range with `cpus=0-4`. The
same example could also be described with `cpus=[0,1,2,3,4]`.

A combination of both `-` and `,` separators is useful when one might need to
describe a list containing all CPUs from 0 to 99 and the CPU 255, as it could
simply be described with `cpus=[0-99,255]`.

As soon as one tries to describe a list of values, `[` and `]` must be used to
demarcate the list.

**Note:** When creating a Generic Initiator node via the `device_id` parameter,
the `cpus` option must not be specified.

_Example_

```
--cpus boot=8
--numa guest_numa_id=0,cpus=[1-3,7] guest_numa_id=1,cpus=[0,4-6]
```

### `distances`

List of distances between the current NUMA node referred by `guest_numa_id`
and the destination NUMA nodes listed along with distances. This option lets
the user choose the distances between guest NUMA nodes. This is important to
provide an accurate description of the way non uniform memory accesses will
perform in the guest.

One or more tuple of two values must be provided through this option. The first
value is an unsigned integer of 32 bits as it represents the destination NUMA
node. The second value is an unsigned integer of 8 bits as it represents the
distance between the current NUMA node and the destination NUMA node. The two
values are separated by `@` (`value1@value2`), meaning the destination NUMA
node `value1` is located at a distance of `value2`. Each tuple is separated
from the others with `,` separator.

As soon as one tries to describe a list of values, `[` and `]` must be used to
demarcate the list.

**Default distances:**
- If distances are not specified for a NUMA node, default values are applied:
  - Distance to self: 10
  - Distance to all other nodes: 20
- Partial distance specifications are allowed; unspecified distances use the defaults above

**Distance symmetry:**
- Cloud Hypervisor automatically ensures distance symmetry in ACPI SLIT (System Locality Information Table) and FDT
- If node A specifies distance to node B, the reverse distance (B to A) is automatically set to the same value

For instance, if one wants to define 3 NUMA nodes, with each node located at
different distances, it can be described with the following example.

_Example_

```
# Explicit bidirectional distances
--numa guest_numa_id=0,distances=[1@15,2@25] guest_numa_id=1,distances=[0@15,2@20] guest_numa_id=2,distances=[0@25,1@20]

# Simplified with symmetry - only specify in one direction
--numa guest_numa_id=0,distances=[1@15,2@25] guest_numa_id=1,distances=[2@20]
# Results in the same topology: 0↔1=15, 0↔2=25, 1↔2=20

# Using defaults - only specify non-default distances
--numa guest_numa_id=0,cpus=[0-1],memory_zones=mem0,distances=[1@15]
--numa guest_numa_id=1,cpus=[2-3],memory_zones=mem1
# Node 0: self=10, to node 1=15
# Node 1: self=10, to node 0=15 (symmetric)
```

### `memory_zones`

List of memory zones attached to the guest NUMA node identified by the
`guest_numa_id` option. This allows for describing a list of memory ranges
which must be seen by the guest as belonging to the NUMA node `guest_numa_id`.

This option can be very useful and powerful when combined with `host_numa_node`
option from `--memory-zone` parameter as it allows for creating a VM with non
uniform memory accesses, and let the guest know about it. It allows for
exposing memory zones through different NUMA nodes, which can help the guest
workload run more efficiently.

Multiple values can be provided to define the list. Each value is a string
referring to an existing memory zone identifier. Values are separated from
each other with the `,` separator.

As soon as one tries to describe a list of values, `[` and `]` must be used to
demarcate the list.

Note that a memory zone must belong to a single NUMA node. The following
configuration is incorrect, therefore not allowed:
`--numa guest_numa_id=0,memory_zones=mem0 guest_numa_id=1,memory_zones=mem0`

**Note:** When creating a Generic Initiator node via the `device_id` parameter,
the `memory_zones` option must not be specified.

_Example_

```
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=1G id=mem1,size=1G id=mem2,size=1G
--numa guest_numa_id=0,memory_zones=[mem0,mem2] guest_numa_id=1,memory_zones=mem1
```

### `device_id` (Generic Initiator)

Device identifier for creating a Generic Initiator NUMA node that is
{CPU,memory}-less and associated with a specific VFIO-PCI device.

Generic Initiator nodes are defined by ACPI SRAT (System Resource Affinity
Table) Type 5 entries and allow the guest OS to understand device-to-memory
proximity relationships. Without Generic Initiator support, the guest OS has
no way to know which NUMA node a passthrough device is closest to.

By exposing these proximity relationships, the guest OS can perform
NUMA-aware scheduling and optimize memory placement for workloads
utilizing those specific devices.

When `device_id` is specified, `cpus` and `memory_zones` must NOT be provided.

Value is a string referring to an existing device identifier defined via
`--device id=<device_identifier>`.

_Example_

```bash
# Create two standard NUMA nodes with CPUs and memory, plus one Generic
# Initiator node for a VFIO GPU
--cpus boot=4
--memory size=0
--memory-zone id=mem0,size=2G id=mem1,size=2G
--numa guest_numa_id=0,cpus=[0-1],memory_zones=mem0,distances=[1@20,2@25]
--numa guest_numa_id=1,cpus=[2-3],memory_zones=mem1,distances=[0@20,2@30]
--numa guest_numa_id=2,device_id=gpu0,distances=[0@25,1@30]
--device id=gpu0,path=/sys/bus/pci/devices/0000:01:00.0,iommu=on
```

In this configuration:
- Node 0: CPUs 0-1, 2GB memory
- Node 1: CPUs 2-3, 2GB memory
- Node 2 (auto-assigned): GPU device, closer to node 0 (distance=25) than node 1 (distance=30)

### PCI bus

Cloud Hypervisor supports guests with one or more PCI segments. The default PCI segment always
has affinity to NUMA node 0. By default, all other PCI segments have affinity to NUMA node 0.
The user may configure the NUMA affinity for any additional PCI segments.

_Example_

```
--platform num_pci_segments=2
--memory-zone size=16G,host_numa_node=0,id=mem0
--memory-zone size=16G,host_numa_node=1,id=mem1
--numa guest_numa_id=0,memory_zones=mem0,pci_segments=[0]
--numa guest_numa_id=1,memory_zones=mem1,pci_segments=[1]
```
